• Scientific studies highlight ecological risks, with recent research showing a 37% decline in seabed animals in areas disturbed by mining trials

• Research suggests deep-sea deposits may exceed known terrestrial reserves for several minerals that are key to advanced technology

ISTANBUL 

Long viewed as a theoretical possibility, deep-sea mining has moved rapidly toward the center of global debates over energy security, supply chains and environmental protection, as governments weigh the demand for critical minerals against the unknown costs of extracting them from the ocean floor.

Deep-sea mining refers to the extraction of mineral-rich deposits – including polymetallic nodules, cobalt-rich crusts and seafloor massive sulfides – from depths often exceeding 4,000 meters (about 2.5 miles).

These deposits contain metals such as nickel, cobalt, copper and rare earth elements, which are essential for electric vehicle batteries, renewable energy technologies and advanced electronics.

While no commercial deep-sea mining operations are currently active anywhere in the world, competition over land-based mineral resources and geopolitical rivalry over supply chains have pushed the seabed into focus as a potential new frontier.

That shift accelerated in April 2025, when US President Donald Trump signed an executive order directing federal agencies to advance a domestic deep-sea mining industry, framing seabed minerals as a matter of national security and economic competitiveness.

The US has a “core national security and economic interest in maintaining leadership in deep-sea science and technology and seabed mineral resources,” the order said.

Shortly after the order was signed, Canadian firm The Metals Company announced it had submitted an application – in coordination with US authorities – related to mining polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, a vast mineral-rich area of the central Pacific Ocean between Hawaii and Mexico.

In a statement, the company said it had held meetings with US officials and was “encouraged by the interest in the role deep-sea minerals can play in securing America’s supply chain.”

Momentum continued later in the year. In November 2025, the US Bureau of Ocean Energy Management launched a request for information on potential commercial leasing for seabed minerals off the Northern Mariana Islands, opening a public comment period that was later extended by another month.

Then, just last week, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) issued a new rule that makes it less complicated for companies to apply for the right to mine the ocean floor.

Following the new rule, The Metals Company applied for a permit increasing its commercial recovery area from around 25,000 square kilometers (about 9,650 square miles) to 65,000 square kilometers (about 25,100 square miles).

If approved, the application could pave the way for the world’s first commercial deep-sea mining operation.

Together, these moves signal a shift from theoretical debate to concrete policy action, raising alarm among scientists and environmental advocates.

Growing international pushback

Despite Washington’s push toward commercial extraction, a growing group of countries is urging caution, citing environmental risks and the absence of a binding global regulatory framework.

So far, more than 40 countries – including Spain, France, Germany and the UK – have called for a precautionary pause, a moratorium or an outright ban on deep-sea mining until its ecological impacts are better understood and stronger safeguards are put in place.

Norway, which approved exploratory seabed mineral activity in the Arctic Ocean in 2024 as part of its green transition strategy, reversed course last month, announcing it would suspend the initiative amid mounting domestic and international pressure.

China has also weighed in, emphasizing that the deep seabed and its resources are the “common heritage of mankind.” The Chinese Foreign Ministry warned that no country should bypass international authorities or pursue unilateral action outside established legal frameworks.

In a separate statement, Beijing said it supports the work of the International Seabed Authority (ISA), the UN-established body responsible for regulating activities in international seabed areas beyond national jurisdiction.

“China stands ready to work with all parties to continue supporting the ISA’s work and promote sustainable deep-sea activities and effective protection of the marine environment based on science and in accordance with relevant rules,” a Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson said.

Early-stage industry amid regulatory uncertainty

Despite growing political interest, deep-sea mining remains in its infancy, and scientists stress that much of the ocean floor is still poorly understood.

Only about 27.3% of the world’s oceans have been mapped to modern standards, according to the Nippon Foundation–GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project, which aims to map the entire ocean floor by 2030.

Most commercially attractive mineral deposits lie in international waters, which fall under the ISA’s jurisdiction. However, the authority has yet to finalize a mining code that would regulate commercial extraction.

In June 2025, negotiations over the code ended without agreement, with member states deciding to resume talks in 2026.

According to the ISA, states are currently able to secure exploration contracts, but no country or company has entered full-scale commercial deep-sea mining.

Risks to deep-sea ecosystems

One of the most contentious aspects of deep-sea mining is uncertainty over its environmental impact.

A study published in the journal Science suggests that species documented on the seabed may represent only about one-third of existing life forms, indicating that much of deep-ocean biodiversity remains undiscovered.

Current pilot projects rely on large robotic machines that suck polymetallic nodules up from the seabed, disturbing surface sediments and generating sediment plumes that can spread over large areas.

Recent research led by scientists from the Natural History Museum, the University of Gothenburg and the UK’s National Oceanography Centre found a 37% decline in macrofaunal animals – including worms, crustaceans, snails and mussels – in sediments directly affected by mining tracks.

The study also observed shifts in species dominance in areas affected by sediment plumes generated by mining equipment.

Beyond localized impacts, scientists warn of broader risks to ocean systems.

According to the World Resources Institute, noise and artificial light from mining operations could disrupt species adapted to dark, stable environments, while damage to slow-growing habitats – such as sponge fields and nodule-dependent communities – may take centuries or even millennia to recover.

Large marine species, including whales, may also be affected by underwater noise, adding pressure to populations already stressed by climate change.

Another study, published in the journal Environmental Science & Technology, detected elevated concentrations of cobalt and copper in waste plumes from manganese nodule mining tests, raising concerns over toxicity.

Researchers found that waste discharged from mining vessels could spread several kilometers beyond extraction sites, potentially affecting fisheries and marine food webs.

Which regions have the most promising deposits?

Some of the world’s most promising deep-sea mineral reserves lie in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, which spans roughly 4.5 million square kilometers (1.7 million square miles) between Mexico and Hawaii.

According to research by The Pew Charitable Trusts, the area contains vast quantities of polymetallic nodules rich in nickel, cobalt, copper and manganese.

Other potential resource areas include cobalt-rich crusts along seamounts in the western Pacific – particularly within the Prime Crust Zone – and seafloor massive sulfides near mid-ocean ridges, including parts of the Indian Ocean and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

The US Geological Survey estimates the Clarion-Clipperton Zone alone contains around 21.1 billion dry tons of polymetallic nodules, while the Prime Crust Zone holds nearly 7.5 billion dry tons of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts.

These figures suggest that deep-sea deposits may exceed known terrestrial reserves for several key metals.

If deep-sea mining follows a trajectory similar to offshore oil extraction, the US Geological Survey projects that seabed sources could supply 35–45% of global demand for critical metals by 2065.